Publications
Scherbaum, C. A., & Vancouver, J. B. (in press). If we produce discrepancies, then how? Testing a computational process model of positive goal revision. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. (in press). Measuring individual differences in content via changing person-context interaction. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice. Opening Paragraph.
Vancouver, J. B., Tamanini, K. B., & Yoder, R. J. (in press). Using dynamic computational models to reconnect theory and research: A socialization by the proactive newcomer exemplar. Journal of Management. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. (2008). Integrating self-regulation theories of work motivation into a dynamic process theory. Human Resource Management Review, 18, 1-18. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. & Scherbaum, C. A. (2008). Do We Self-Regulate Actions or Perceptions? A Test of Two Computational Models. Computational and Mathematical Organizational Theory, 14, 1-22. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., Yoder, R. J., & More, K. M, (2008). Predicting research productivity among I/O Psychologists: The implications of a dynamic interaction model in validity research. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 45, 27-36. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., More, K. M., & Yoder, R. J. (2008). Self‑efficacy and resource allocation: Support for a discontinuous model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 35-47. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., & Zawidzki, T. (2007). What Determines the Self in Self‑Regulation: Applied Psychology’s Struggle with Will. In D. Ross, D. Spurrett, H. Kincaid, & L. Stephens (Eds.), Distributed Cognition and the Will (pp. 289-322). MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. Opening paragraph.
Vancouver, J. B. (2006). Control theory. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Industrial/Organizational Psychology (pp. 107-110).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Opening paragraph.
Vancouver, J. B. & Kendall, L. N. (2006). When self‑efficacy negatively relates to motivation and performance in a learning context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1146-1153. Abstract.
Owens, J. S., Richerson, L., Beilstein, E. A., Crane, A., Murphy, C. E., & Vancouver, J. B. (2005). School‑Based Mental Health Programming for Children with Inattentive and Disruptive Behavior Problems: First Year Treatment Outcome. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 261-274. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., & Day, D. V. (2005). Industrial and Organization Research on Self‑Regulation: From Constructs to Applications. Applied Psychology: International Review, 54, 155-185. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., Putka, D. J., & Scherbaum, C. A. (2005). Testing a Computational Model of the Goal-Level Effect: An Example of a Neglected Methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 100-127. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. (2005). The Depth of History and Explanation as Benefit and Bane for Psychological Control Theories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 38-52. Abstract. (Full paper in PDF)
Vancouver, J. B., & Tischner, E. C. (2004). The Effect of Feedback Sign on Task Performance Depends on Self Concept Discrepancies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 1092-1098. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., Thompson, C. M. Tischner, E. C., & Putka, D. J. (2002). Two studies examining the negative effect of self-efficacy on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 506-516. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B., Thompson, C. M., & Williams, A. A. (2001). The changing signs in the relationships between self-efficacy, personal goals and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 605-620. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. & Putka, D. J. (2000). Analyzing Goal-Striving Behavior and a Test of the Generalizability of Perceptual Control Theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82, 334-362. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. & Scherbaum Jr., C. A. (2000). Automaticity, goals and environmental interactions. American Psychologist, 55, 763-764. Opening paragraph.
Morrison, E. W., & Vancouver, J. B. (2000). Within-person analysis of information seeking: The effects of perceived costs and benefits. Journal of Management, 26, 119-137. Abstract.
Vancouver, J. B. (2000). Self-regulation in Industrial/Organizational Psychology: A tale of two paradigms. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner, (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 303-341). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Table of Contents.
Vancouver, J. B., (1997). The application of HLM to the analysis of the dynamic interaction of environment, person and behavior. Journal of Management, 23(6), 723-746. Abstract
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin,120(3), 338-375. Abstract
Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Living systems theory as a paradigm for organizational behavior: Understanding humans, organizations, and social processes. Behavioral Science, 41(3), 165-204. Abstract
Vancouver, J. B., & Morrison, E. W. (1995). Feedback inquiry: The effects of source attributes and individual differences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 276-285.
Vancouver, J. B., & Millsap, R., Peters, P. A. (1994). Multilevel Analysis of Organization Goal Congruence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 666-679.
Solomon, D. J., Vancouver, J. B., Reinhart, M. A., & Haf, J. J. (1992). A graphic approach for presenting expectancy of success based on two predictors. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 4, 45-48.
Vancouver, J. B., & Schmitt, N. (1991). An exploratory examination of person-organization fit: Organizational goal congruence. Personnel Psychology. 44, 333-352.
Vancouver, J. B., Rubin, B., & Kerr, N. L. (1991). Sex Composition of groups and member motivation III: Social loafing at a feminine task. Basic and Applied Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 133-144.
Smith, R. C., Greenbaum, D., Vancouver, J. B., Henry, R., Reinhart, M. A., Greenbaum, R., Dean, H., & Mayle, J. (1991). Gender differences in the prediction of Irritable Bowel Syndrome using Manning criteria. Gastroenterology. 100, 591-595.
Vancouver, J. B., Reinhart, M. A., Solomon, D. J., & Haf, J. J. (1990). Determination of validity and bias in the use of GPA and MCAT in the selection of medical school students. Academic Medicine. 65, 694-696.
Smith, R. C., Greenbaum, D., Vancouver, J. B., Henry, R., Reinhart, M. A., Greenbaum, R., Dean, H., & Mayle, J. (1990). Psychosocial factors are associated with health care-seeking rather than diagnosis in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology, 98, 293-301.
Vancouver, J. B. & Ilgen, D. R. (1989). The effects of individual difference and the sex-type of the task on choosing to work alone or in a group. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 927-934.
Hollenbeck, J. R., Ilgen, D. R., Ostroff, C., & Vancouver, J. B. (1987). Sex differences in occupational choice, pay and worth: A psychological approach to understanding the male-female wage gap. Personnel Psychology, 40, 715-744.
Abstracts, Table of Contents or Opening Paragraphs
Scherbaum & Vancouver (in press)
Within the self-regulation literature on goals, both discrepancy reduction and discrepancy production are considered important theoretical and practical processes. Yet, discrepancy production has only been examined in a limited number of goal-striving contexts and the analytical strategies employed (e.g., difference scores) are difficult to interpret. This study extends discrepancy production research to multiple goal contexts where the goals are in conflict. Computational modeling and an organizational simulation were used to test a control theory explanation of discrepancy production. The occurrence of discrepancy production in the computational model and participants was assessed using hierarchical linear modeling. Comparing the data from the computational model with the participants’ data indicated a good fit. Implications of the findings and methods are discussed.
Vancouver (in press): Opening Paragraph
Kanfer’s article took a triumvirate approach to understanding work motivation by describing the relevance of content, context, and change. In this commentary I suggest integrating these three elements to move the field further yet. Specifically, we need to recognize the fact that the elements are inextricability linked, and thus to better understand and develop measures of the content of individuals that matter (i.e., predictive individual differences), we must model how those individual differences are influenced by and influence context. Moreover, we must model how these influences change the context and the individual over time. By model, I am referring to Ilgen and Hulin’s (2000) third discipline – computational modeling – as a means to explicitly recognize the dynamics, and how they involve both the individual and the environment. Computational modeling is not merely a statistical representation of observed data, but a way to conceptually represent the underlying dynamics responsible for the data observed. Without this approach, we will be slow to change our field’s understanding of the entire system (i.e., person nested in context).
Vancouver, Tamanini, & Yoder, (in press)
Previous research on dynamic processes during newcomer socialization has involved longitudinal field designs and state-of-the-art analyses. However, findings from this research either contradict or are non-diagnostic regarding key conceptual issues described by prominent socialization theories. We use computational modeling to: 1) represent the presumed underlying processes in these theories; 2) demonstrate that current research does not test these theoretical processes; and 3) suggest the designs needed to support or refute components of dynamic theories.
Instead of merely combining theories of self-regulation, the current paper articulates a dynamic process theory of the underlying cognitive subsystems that explain relationships among long-used constructs like goals, expectancies, and valence. Formal elements of the theory are presented in an attempt to encourage the building of computational models of human actors, thinkers, and learners in organizational contexts. Discussion focuses on the application of these models for understanding the dynamics of individuals interacting in their organizations.
Self-regulation theories in applied psychology disagree about whether action or perceptions are the focus of regulation. Computational models based on the two conceptualizations were constructed and simulated. In one scenario, they performed identically and in conjunction with participants in a study of the goal-level effect (Vancouver et al., Organ Res Methods 8:100–127, 2005). In another scenario they created differentiating predictions and only the computational model based on the self-regulation of perceptions matched the data of participants. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Vancouver, Yoder, & More (2008): Opening Paragraph
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) psychologists are often interested in the predictors of job performance across a wide range of occupations (Schmitt & Chan, 1998). Ironically, few have examined the predictors of the scholarly performance (i.e., research productivity) within our own discipline. An exception is Judge, Kammeyer-Mueller, and Bretz (2004), who looked at predicting career success among I/O psychologists. Others have looked at predicting scholarly productivity in other fields (Buchmueller, Dominitz, & Hansen, 1999; Hansen, Weisbrod, & Strauss, 1978; Hogan, 1981, 1986; Long, Allison, & McGinnis, 1979; Long, Bowers, Barnett, & White, 1998; and Williamson & Cable, 2003). However, these studies either cumulated productivity over the entire career (e.g., Judge et al., 2004) or examined only early career productivity (e.g., Williamson & Cable, 2003). Yet, many academic institutions are interested in more senior level searches or in predicting research productivity once tenure is granted. Also, many of the studies appeared to ignore the effect of lags (i.e., time spans) on the criterion. Specifically, criterion measures of scholarly performance usually involve publications, which are typically the result of years of development, review, and long publication queues for printing. Thus work begun and carried out largely in graduate school may likely not “count” until one is well ensconced in their first job. These issues can lead to spurious conclusions if not considered.
Vancouver, More, & Yoder (2008)
Self-regulation theories are paving the way to integrating motivational theories of behavior. However, a review of the motivation literature reveals several possible relationships between self-efficacy and motivation. Past findings were reduced to four empirical models that were compared within a single study using undergraduates playing a computer task. The effects of two manipulations of self-efficacy on resource allocation decisions were assessed. Consistent with a multiple goal process conceptualization, self-efficacy was found to relate positively to directing resources toward a goal, but negatively to the magnitude of resources allocated for accepted goals. Differences in methods are used to reconcile current and past findings.
Vancouver & Zawidzki (2007): Opening Paragraph
The tension between mechanistic understandings of human behavior and traditional notions of agency has been a topic of vigorous debate in philosophy for thousands of years, and in theoretical psychology since William James’ pioneering discussions over a century ago (1897). Discussion of whether concepts of the self, agency and personal responsibility can be reconciled with the mechanistic explanation of human behavior has not abated. In fact, it has recently surfaced in what appears to be a rather unlikely domain: applied psychology.
Vancouver (2006): Opening Paragraph
Long ago careful observers of humans and other organisms noticed that certain variables that should vary as environmental conditions changed actually did not vary much within the organism. For example, shelves remain stocked despite customers buying products. Control theory arose as one explanation for the mechanism that keeps variables, like stocks, stable. Industrial/Organizational psychologists have come to find the explanation provided by control theory to be very useful for conceptualizing and understanding a great deal of work-related phenomena.
Recent reviews of the training literature have advocated directly manipulating self-efficacy in an attempt to improve the motivation of trainees. However, self-regulation theories conceive of motivation as a function of various goal processes, and assert that the effect of self-efficacy should depend on the process involved. Training contexts may evoke planning processes, where self-efficacy might negatively relate to motivation. Yet the typical between-person studies in the current literature may obscure this effect. To examine this issue, 63 undergraduate students completed a series of questionnaires measuring self-efficacy and motivation before five class exams. Self-efficacy was negatively related to motivation and exam performance at the within-person level of analysis, despite a significant positive relationship with performance at the between-person level.
Owens, Richerson, Beilstein, Crane, Murphy, & Vancouver (2005)
This article examines the effectiveness of an evidence-based behavioral treatment package for children with inattentive and disruptive behavior problems when delivered in the context of a school-based mental health program. Child symptomatology and functioning are assessed in a treatment group (n = 30) and awaitlist control group (n = 12) across multiple time points (fall, winter, and spring). Treatment includes a daily report card procedure, year-long teacher consultation, and parenting sessions. According to the parent report, treated children show marked reductions in hyperactive and impulsive, oppositional or defiant and aggressive behavior, and marked improvement in peer relationships. Teachers observe treatment-related group differences in inattention, academic functioning, and the student-teacher relationship. Feasibility and acceptability data have implications for transporting evidence-based treatments to community settings and for integrating mental health services into the culture of the school community
The self-regulation perspective is currently well received in the industrial and organizational psychology literature. Theoretical and empirical work span processes ranging from organization entry to exit and reentry. Key self-regulation constructs and interventions in work contexts are reviewed with a focus on construct and internal validity. Some constructs, such as self-efficacy and goal commitment, have received substantial psychometric attention and seem important targets for interventions. Nonetheless, potentially unwarranted assumptions remain regarding these constructs. Other constructs, particularly feedback and discrepancy, have acquired substantially different meanings within the self-regulation literature that inhibit understanding and communication among scholars and practitioners. Interventions based on self-regulatory principles have been developed, and rigorous tests of these interventions have been conducted. These interventions were found to influence a range of organizationally relevant outcomes such as increasing performance and reducing absenteeism. Unfortunately, studies of comprehensive interventions are rare and often lacked controls, making it difficult to draw conclusions regarding what aspects of the interventions are causally relevant. Discussion focuses on the gaps in the field’s knowledge and understanding regarding self-regulatory processes in organizational settings and how the field might attempt to fill those gaps.
Vancouver, Putka, & Scherbaum (2005)
To encourage the use of computational modeling in organizational behavior research, an example computational model is developed and rigorous tests of it presented. Specifically, a computational model based on control theory was created to test the theory's explanation of the goal-level effect (e.g., higher goals lead to higher performance). Data from simulations of the model were compared with the behavior of 32 undergraduate students performing a scheduling task under various within-subject manipulations and across time. Correlational analyses indicated that the model accounted for most of the participants' data, with coefficients between the model and each participant's behavior mostly in the high nineties.
(A working version of the model can be downloaded (four agents.mdl) and the software used to create and run the model (the learning edition of Vensim©) can be downloaded for free at http://www.vensim.com/. The alternative model described in the paper is downloadable as well (alternative.mdl).
A longstanding debate has recently re-erupted in the self-regulation literature around the concept of self-efficacy. This article presents an argument that the debate emerges from a lack of understanding the long and varied history of control theories within both the social and physical sciences, and the various levels of explanation to which phenomena can be subjected. This history, coupled with the issues of determinism, materialism, and empiricism evoked by the deeper level of explanation some versions of control theory provide, have led some critics to misapply non-psychological properties to control theories and obscure their usefulness. Here the usefulness of a deeper control theory level of explanation is illustrated via comparisons with explanations found in goal-setting theory and the use of self-efficacy in social cognitive theory.
Control theories claim that information about performance is often used by multiple goal systems. A proposition tested here was that performance information can create discrepancies in self-concept goals, directing cognitive resources away from the task goal system. To manipulate performance information, 160 undergraduates were given false positive or false negative normative feedback while working on a task that did or did not require substantial cognitive resources. Half the participants were then given an opportunity to reaffirm their self-concepts following feedback whereas half were not. Feedback sign positively related to performance only for those working on the cognitively intense task and not given a chance to reaffirm. Otherwise, feedback sign was negatively related to performance, albeit weakly.
Vancouver, Thompson, Tischner, & Putka (2002)
Although hundreds of studies have found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and performance, several studies have found a negative relationship when the analysis is done across time (repeated measures) rather than across individuals. Powers (1991) predicted this negative relationship based on perceptual control theory. Here, two studies are presented to a) confirm the causal role of self-efficacy and b) substantiate the explanation. In Study 1, self-efficacy was manipulated for 43 of 87 undergraduates on an analytic game. The manipulation was negatively related to performance on the next trial. In Study 2, 104 undergraduates played the analytic game and reported self-efficacy between each game and confidence in the degree to which they had assessed previous feedback. As expected, self-efficacy led to overconfidence and hence increased the likelihood of committing logic errors during the game.
Vancouver, Thompson, & Williams (2001)
The common interpretation of the positive correlation between self-efficacy, personal goals, and performance is questioned. Via self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) it was predicted that cross-sectional correlational results are likely a function of past performance, and via control theory (Powers, 1973) it was predicted that self-efficacy could negatively influence subsequent performance. These predictions were supported with 56 undergraduate participants using a within-person procedure. Personal goals were also positively influenced by self-efficacy and performance, but negatively related to subsequent performance. A second study involving 187 undergraduates found that manipulated goal level positively predicted performance and self-efficacy positively predicted performance in the difficult goal condition. The discussion focuses on conditions likely to affect the sign of the relationship between self-efficacy, goals, and performance.
Theories that articulate dynamic processes are relatively rare, but methods for testing the theories are even rarer. This study illustrates two methods for examining goal-striving processes and a tool for collecting dynamic data. The first method tests a hypothesis regarding what variable the participants are attempting to maintain. The second method involves creating multi-level models used to describe the dynamic data generated by study participants, which can be used to test between and within-subject manipulations or differences. The tool is a research simulation of a manager’s role in scheduling subordinates in a hospital wing. Together these methods and tool are used to test the generalizability of perceptual control theory in explaining striving for cognitive goals. The results confirm the viability of a control theory accounting of goal striving, and highlight the potential of the methods and research tool in future research.
Vancouver & Scherbaum (2000): Opening Paragraph
We read with great interest Bargh and Chartrand's (1999) treatise on the pervasiveness of automaticity and its relation to self-regulation. Indeed, we are in complete agreement with their basic premise that much, if not most, human behavior is related to nonconscious or automatic processes. However, we took exception to their description of how automaticity plays out in terms of goal-striving behavior, and thus the nature of the interaction between humans and their environment. Specifically, we question the notion that stimuli evoke goals, and that behavior is an automatic response to stimuli, which is reminiscent of psychological theory of the 1950s. The primary issue is where exactly control for automatic processes resides and how it is evoked.
This study focused on how perceived costs and benefits affect information seeking across multiple types and sources of information. This focus required a within-person approach to data collection and analysis. Respondents were 282 early-career engineers. Results demonstrate that individuals selectively seek different types of information, and utilize different sources, based on assessments of corresponding costs and benefits. Results provide insight into individuals’ decisions about what information to seek and from whom, and highlight the value of studying within-person patterns of information seeking.
Vancouver (2000): Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. Definitions
A. Self-Regulation
B. Self-Regulated Learning
C. In Sum
III. Two Paradigms
A. Cybernetic-Systems Paradigm
B. The Decision-Making Paradigm
IV. The Paradigms in I/O Psychological Theories of Self-Regulation
A. Goal-Setting Theory
B. Social Cognitive Theory
C. Action Theory
D. In Sum
V. Merging the Paradigms
A. Learning in the Action Hierarchy
B. Gates and Modes of Operation
C. Some Data
VI. Conclusion
A multiple goal context was examined to assess the interaction of environment, person and behavior over time. Specifically, frequency of feedback was manipulated, and performance and goal commitment for a quality and a quantity goal were measured in a short-term, longitudinal study. One hundred fifteen participants were given the performance goals in a dynamic, decision-making task. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to test the hypotheses, which included both within and between person effects. Discussion focused on the special issues related to the interpretation of these type of multi-level data and the self-regulating framework used to develop the hypotheses.
Goals and related constructs are ubiquitous in contemporary psychological research, and span the history of psychology. Research on goals has accumulated sporadically through unintegrated research programs in cognitive, personality, and motivational domains. Goals are broadly defined as internal representations of desired states. This paper reviews much of the theoretical development of the structure and properties of goals, goal establishment and striving processes, and goal content taxonomies. Affect as antecedent, consequence, and content of goals is included. Arguments are made for integrating across different content areas of psychology to study goal directed cognition and action more efficiently. Particular emphasis is given to the structural and dynamic aspects of pursuing multiple goals, parallel processing, and the parsimonious accounting of these processes provided by the goal construct. Finally, we advocate construct validation of a comprehensive taxonomy of goals as a prerequisite for meaningful studies of goal structure and process.
Living systems theories have been used to model human, organization, and communication processes. This paper attempts to describe these models and to highlight the isomorphisms among the models. Particular emphasis is given to self-regulating properties of humans as a subsystem of social systems. Attention is given to the advantages of generalizing across levels and phenomena and integrating the middle-range theories that dominate the field of organizational behavior. Three broad recommendations for future research are discussed.
